Oil Extraction Essay Example for Free

Oil Extraction EssayWhen haul uping lipoids or fats from foods, both the method as well as the solvents chosen to perform a complete, or close to complete blood are important. If these two elements are not taken into consideration, the extraction whitethorn not be complete, or the extract may contain a large quantity of undesired impurities. The natural fats and oil are mixtures of glycerides of fatty acids. Fats and oils are naturally occurring organic compounds which belong to a large group of water insoluble substances called lipids. Lipids are relatively non-polar molecules, they can be pulled out of a sample using relatively non-polar solvents. With a non-polar solvent, totally non-polar molecules in the sample dissolve while polar ones do not. A solution to the problem of extracting trapped lipids is to use an extraction procedure such as the soxhlet that testament help break up the polar barriers and allow the solvent to reach the non-polar compounds and extract them .In this experiment, soxhlet extraction was used. Soxhlet extraction is an extraction method that uses chemical substance solvents. Oils from the algae are extracted through repeated washing, or percolation, with an organic solvent such as hexane or petroleum ether, under reflux in a special glassware. Copra, dried kernel of the coconut, was the sample used. Often though, the sample must be ground and prepared prior to the extraction procedure in revisal to break up the cell membranes and other structures that would make extraction difficult. In this experiment, petroleum ether was used as the solvent due to its low boiling point, relatively non-toxic nature (when compared to chloroform or methanol), and of course because it is quite non-polar.When talking about ether, two kinds can be used in lipid extraction anhydrous diethyl ether CH3CH2OCH2CH3 and petroleum ether, which is a mixture of pentane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3) and hexane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3). Petroleum ether is more non-polar , cheaper and less flammable than diethyl ether. Due to its greater non-polarity, petroleum ether will yield a more specific extract than diethyl ether because it will only extract the most polar molecules. However, as petroleum ether may not be able to break apart some of the more polar shells surrounding some lipids and give a near complete lipid extraction, diethyl ether is usually used despite its higher flammability and cost.

Parenting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity Essay Example for Free

P arnting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity EssayStatement of the problemAt the end of this study the investigatees aim to answer these questions 1. Is there a signifi digestt blood between p arnting styles and concern sensitiveness? 2. Which among the three p benting style has the highest probability of producing anxious sisterren? 3. Which among the demographic factors affect the p arnting style of the mothers?Review of Related LiteratureIt has long been proposed that parent-child relationships (particularly a childs perceptions of these relationships) play an of the essence(p) role in child adjustment and psychological instruction (Safford et al. , 2007).Since 1966, researchers energise conducted a great deal of research evaluating parent child interactions using the prototype of enate patterns developed by Baumrind (1966 1971), i.e., authoritative, authoritarian and permissive. Baumrind (1971) grouped parents mien according to whether they were high or low on agnate demandingness and responsiveness. Each of these parenting styles reflected polar naturally occurring patterns of maternal values, practices and behaviors (Baumrind, 1991). Authoritative parents strive to provide clear, firm direction, but discipline is moderated by fondness and reason (Buri, 1991). Permissive parents are non- accommodateling, and they use minimal punishment. undemocratic parents are highly directive, and they value unquesti onenessd obedience.Authoritarian parents are characteristically little warm, they reject verbal give-and-take, and they use punitive methods to match their childrens behavior (Gfroerer, et al., 2011). It is important then to examine the type of parenting in which the child is exposed to at such a young get along with because it willing bring in impact on their lives later on. During adolescence, various biological, cognitive, emotional, and social miscellaneas take place that affect the parent-child relationship (Lerner et al., 1996). Hence, it is essential to get on in some factors that have influenced parenting styles in this particular period of life (Dzgn, 1995). Suppose parenting styles play a vital role in the development of fretting disorders, it then becomes key in apprehensiveness how overprotective parenting aggravates the development of the foreboding symptoms (Erozkan, 2012).Given the importance of dread sensitivity for understanding emotional problems, it is important to as well as gain a better understanding of the nature of anxiety sensitivity (Taylor, 1995). Because family is one of the largest environmental factors impacting a childs life, it is important to understand how a childs family affects the development of anxiety symptoms in children. Furthermore, since it is a childs parents who usually create the family environment, it is essential to understand which characteristics of parents or parenting contribute to the development of anxiety (Nanda et al., 2011). Chorpita and Barlow (1998) hypothesized that early life experiences involving excessive parental control bear cause an individual to believe that events in ones life are uncontrollable and unpredictable, which then contributes to the development of anxiety.That is, children who experience excessive parental control whitethorn believe that they have no internal control over their lives, since their parents are the ones who control everything this, in turn, can trinity to the development of anxiety. Further, parents with high levels of anxiety sensitivity whitethorn intervene more often, as they observe signs of anxiety in their children, judging these symptoms as harmful (Erozkan, 2011). In accordance to this, the aim of this research is to uncover the significant relationships between anxiety sensitivity and parenting styles.In the study conducted by Chambers et al. (2004), it is said that poor parenting style has been associated with anxiety and mood disorders among children. In this study, parenting styl es were divided into two dimensions which are dish out and control. Under the dimension of care, parents are seen as warmth and understanding, while under the dimension of control, parents are seen as over-protective or intrusive. Patients with anxiety disorders were in addition tested in the study and Chambers et al. (2004) found show up that those patients with anxiety disorders perceived poor parenting from both their mothers and fathers, while those who have no anxiety disorders report their parents as having optimal parenting. This suggests that optimal parenting may be considered as a factor in predictive recovery of the children.The study also concluded that paternal and maternal parenting styles have an effect on children. Poor parenting from mothers was associated with having a diagnosis in male participants, while poor parenting from fathers was associated with having a diagnosis in female participants. Parents who scored high in care and high in control were seen as ha ving positive parenting style than parents who scored low in care and either high or low in control. Based on the publications of the study, it is evident that parenting styles have an impact when it comes to childrens development of anxiety and or recovery from anxiety. Children who have parental care are more likely to perceive an optimal parenting and less likely to experience anxiety. Children who are already diagnosed with anxiety disorder are more likely to recover if their parents exhibit a positive parenting style.In a different study conducted by Lindhout et al. (2009), child temperament and child-rearing are said to be peril factors in childs development of anxiety disorders. Parents of children having anxiety disorder exhibit a parenting style which is characterized by over-control and increased criticism. Also, children whose parents show less care or more control are said to be vulnerable to anxiety. The characteristic or temperament of the child may also give rise t o the type of parenting style a parent uses and in return, may also strengthen the childs characteristics. Parenting styles may depend on the characteristic or temperament of the child and at the same time, the characteristic or temperament of the child may also depend on the parenting style of their parents.This suggests that parenting serves as a moderator between temperament and anxiety (Lindhout et al., 2004). Also, children whose parents show less care or more control are said to be vulnerable to anxiety. Similar with the study of Chamber et al. (2004), Lindout et als. (2009) study also mentioned that parenting styles add an evoke component to the prevention of anxiety disorders among children. Temperament (shyness) appeared to be strongly related to anxiety levels in early childhood, but parenting style which is high in control showed more contribution to the anxiety that surface in middle childhood or preadolescence, even among children who were not initially anxious (Lindh out et al., 2004). check to the study of Oort et al. (2011), anxiety has several risk factors such as family or peer influences, and factors that are proximal to the individual. This study also considered temperamental characteristics as associated with anxiety. Family factors include parenting styles with high rejection and overprotection, parenting stress, and parental anxiety and depression. In the result of the study, Oort et al. (2011) found out that some of the important risk factors in preadolescence were low self-competence, rejecting and overprotecting parenting, and being a bully-victim. These risk indicators decrease toward age 16-17 years old. The risk factors that remain stable in high levels of anxiety were temperament, parental lifetime internalizing problems, and being a victim of bullying. Based on these result, it can be said that parenting styles contribute to the anxiety level of the children and may not be disregarded. It is important to consider this factor as lend to anxiety of children so that anxiety may be prevented and parents will be educated on this matter (Lindhout, 2009).In the study conducted by Niditch and Varela (2012), two dimensions of parenting styles were studied which are word sense/rejection and self-direction-granting/control. parental control is said to limit the childs exposure to developmentally appropriate autonomous experiences and self- ranged problem solving (Niditch and Varela, 2012). It was also mentioned that controlling parents lead to anxiety by reducing the childs experience of mastery of challenges in his or her environment. According to the transactional and cyclical nature of the relationship between parental control and child anxiety as mentioned by Niditch and Varela (2012), the parent takes action for the child in order to relieve the childs distress, which often leads to the child feeling anxious in more situations. Parental rejection on the other hand, parents show criticism, arbitrary blame or p unishment, and withholding warmth. Parental rejection teaches children that positive outcomes are rare and are not the result of their actions, and this often leads to anxiety.It also said that parental rejection has less contribution when it comes to developing anxiety in children than parental control. It is important to consider the developmental stage in studying the effect of parental control on anxiety since parents controlling behaviors tend to change or increase through late childhood and decline towards adolescence (Niditch and Varela, 2012). It is also possible that changes in parenting styles affect anxious adolescents differently from non-anxious adolescents. This result manifests because anxious adolescents may perceive normative changes in control parenting style as increasing rejection. In adolescence, rejection is more associated with anxiety than control. Results of the study also revealed that maternal rejection was a predictor of anxiety.As explained by Niditch an d Varela (2012), mothers are the nurturing caregivers and they pass on unique importance on maternal emotion socialization to their children, and that disruption to this role may result to reduced sense of emotional competence, which then leads to increased anxiety. Parents play an integral role in a childs development because it is them who first interacted with the children. According to Ryan and Lynch (1889) secure attachment to parents fosters a healthy self-confidence in adolescents as it does in other developmental stages.Because of this, it is essential to know the possible make of early parenting in the childs cognitive, social, and emotional aspects. It is widely assumed that the nature and quality of the interactions between parents and adolescents can contribute to young peoples well-being (Bandura, 1997). Diana Baumrind in 1966 was able to present three primary parenting styles that can be used to categorize the parents behaviour towards the children. Later on in 1983, Macoby and Martin presented the quarter parenting style called the neglectful and Lamborns et al. (1991), were able to find supporting empirical results for this.As give tongue to by Karavasilis, Doyle, and Markiewicz, (2003), authoritative parents are highly demanding, highly responsive and the same time grants autonomy. Authoritarian parents are characterized by high demandingness, low responsiveness and low levels of autonomy granting. Parents who arepermissive show high levels of responsiveness and autonomy but low level of demandingness. A neglectful parent shows low levels of demandingness, responsiveness and autonomy granting.One important area that has been emphasized as contributing to the development of childhood anxiety is parenting (Chorpita and Barlow, 1998). The parentchild relationship appears to be one contributor to the development and/or maintenance of child social anxiety. A relationship between social anxiety and a parenting style marked by overprotection (or h igh control) and low warmth has been repeatedly demonstrated in various age groups and within both clinical and developmental areas of psychological study. (Bruch et al. 1989). This suggests that the parenting style practiced by the parents is influential in the development of social anxiety in children. Spokas and Heimberg (2008) said that a family environment marked by affective involvement and behavioral control (which is likely related to parental overprotection) predicted ones sense of control over anxiety symptoms, which then contributed to anxiety.Traditional models of childhood anxiety sought to explain the development of anxiety in terms of iodin main effects and focused primarily on the broad parenting dimensions of acceptance versus rejection and psychological granting of autonomy versus psychological control (Rapee, 1997). As stated by Clark and Ladd (2000), parental rejection connotes low levels of parental warmth, approval, and responsiveness. This in turn can weaken the childrens emotions that make him or her sensitive to anxiety that may lead to having anxiety problems. Parental control involves excessive parental regulation of childrens activities and routines, encouragement of childrens dependence on parents, and instruction to children on how to think or feel (Barber, 1996).Theoretical models have hypothesized that when parents are highly controlling in contexts when it is developmentally appropriate for children to act independently (e.g., attending elementary school), children may experience decreased self-efficacy, and thus, increased anxiety (Wood, 2006). stripling years are often portrayed as the hardest stage as a teenager, because it is both tense for the parents and the teens. As said by Kopko (2007), teens undergo a number of developmental adjustments together with the changes on becoming an adult. These are related to the biological, cognitive, emotional and social changes as a teen. To be an effective parent, it requires having methodical understanding of these developmental changes. Kopko (2007) stated that the parents parenting style gives a healthy outcome for the developmental changes.There are different kinds of parenting styles and different impact that can help parents with their parent-teen relationship and the teens to find smooth ways in the adolescent developmental changes. According to Kopko (2007), Baumrind (1971, 1991) has four patterns of parenting style that was based on the two aspects of parenting behavior which is the parental warmth and control. Parental warmth is how a parent accepts and responses to the child and parental control is how a parent manages the behavior of the child. There are different ways of combining the two aspects of parenting behavior and if so there are four parenting styles that come into view. But in this study the researchers will only have three of the parenting styles of Baumrind Authoritarian, Authoritative and Permissive.Kopko (2007) explained all the four patterns of parenting style, but the researcher will mainly focus on the other three parenting styles. Authoritative parenting style is a parent that shows warmth but secure towards the child. The parent reassures that the child can be able to do anything or be independent yet should also know ones limitations and control in their decision and actions. A child that has experienced an authoritative parenting style may likely to be socially capable, responsible and independent. Authoritarian parenting style is a parent that shows a little bit of warmth and more on the control towards the child. The parents are strict and controlling, they use a disciplinal style towards their child and they insist that their directions to the child will be followed. A child that has experienced an authoritarian parenting style may likely to be seditious or dependent. A child that turns out to be rebellious has the tendency to show aggressive behaviors and a child that is more passive or meek is dep endent towards the parent.Permissive parenting style is a parent that shows warmth and no control toward the child. The parent is easygoing, understanding and passive and believes that by reciprocation to the wants of the child will show their love. A child that has experienced a permissive parenting style may likely to be self-centered and have no self-control. As stated by Biradar (2006), the early days is a period of time where the maturity in physical and psychological attributes change. The youth is likely to build his or her own identity element and to acquire skills for socially responsible behavior. The youths change to adulthood can have a smooth process enabled by the presence and guide of securing, nurturing, and understanding parent. If there will be an emotional connection or bonding and communication between the parent and the child it is enough reason that the youth can be emotionally and socially capable, responsible and independent.Taylor (2007) discussed that anx iety sensitivity is the fear of arousal-related sensations, and saying that these sensations have harmful consequences. There are three staple dimensions of anxiety sensitivity the first dimension is the fear of publicly observable anxiety reactions, the second dimension is the fear of thinking that it is unable to control ones behavior, and the last dimension is the fear of somatic sensations. Anxiety sensitivity contributes to the intensity of ones emotional reactions.According to Stein (1999), anxiety sensitivity is the fear of anxiety-related sensations. In the expectancy theory, an individual may become anxious whenever a symptom is experienced by an individual may tend to void certain activities, events, and places that will trigger anxiety. Stein (1999) also explained that if an individual has a high level of anxiety sensitivity, it is said to be that the individual is more likely to be a threat or danger if the individual experiences anxiety symptoms. Kashdan et. al. (2008) said that anxiety sensitivity can be a variable risk factor for anxiety problems and anxiety sensitivity is uniquely have a connection to escape and avoidance behavior of an individual.

Pumpkin Patch Was Established Marketing Essay

autumn pumpkin piece Was Established Marketing Essayautumn pumpkin Patch was established in 1990 as a provider of children wear through mail order. Since then it has expanded into 4 countries. The fundamental law works in app arl exertion which has favorable conditions to grow with powerful rate as of 2005 except the demographics which argon inclined towards developing countries. The industry is also highly competitive. pumpkin vine Patch as a player of this industry has big(p) core competencies deal its design capabilities and brand knowledge of being a niche player. The giving medication can further maintain its long status profitability if it can expand its logistics capabilities in developed marts and create brand recognition for itself in uphill economies which allow help it in long run. doorPumpkin Patch is an system which is into business of children wear. Pumpkin Patch was established in 1990 in New Zealand and since then has expanded into another(prenominal) co untries including Australia, UK and USA by the end of 2005. The judicature has established itself as a brand which is known for great designs, large range, good quality and reasonable price of growths. Though Pumpkin Patch is a small player if comp ared to major(ip) established players in the business notwithstanding these features fox helped grow at a high rate for all these years. In order to understand the boldness, its functioning and the factors leading to it in a better way, this report will try to analyze its external surround, its native environment, its current strategy. On the basis of the analysis finally the recommendations will be provided which can help it grow further in future.External AnalysisThe system is basically into habilitate industry but the face majorly caters to a specific set of customers (children). Thus on more microscopic level, Pumpkin Patch is a part of children wear industry. The industry has been rapidly growing all these years and thus ha s been attractive(a) to the players in this industry.It is also important to understand the general environment in which the industry works. The economic conditions in 2005 are pretty good which suggest that the industry will see a healthy fill from the customers in coming years and thus the industry will see observe a healthy growth rate in coming future. The global conditions in 2005 suggest that the globalization is further leaving to increase in the world which presents a very good opportunity for the players of the industry to expand in tender grocery stores and increase their revenue as well as profits. The technological conditions tell that though the conventional sell sales are preferred by the customers, the organizations are moving towards online sale as it is easier to maintain the catalogs and cater to the demands of customers who are in remote locations. From the political and legal conditions it can be seen that the import duties are going down in many countries w hich are helpful for those players of the industry which are not present in these countries but export their products and thus expand their market (Thomas 2006, pp. 13-14). From demographic point of view, the future of children wear industry is not very bright in developed countries in long term, where the average age of community is higher than the emerging economies and this population is soon going to mature. Thus the industry has more opportunities demographically in emerging economies in long term.To understand the industry environment better it is also important to analyze the forces which operate in the environment. The major suppliers of the industry include the manufacturers of apparels in China, India and other Asian countries which manufacture the products on demand from players care Pumpkin Patch. The suppliers dont have remarkable clout over the industry players as there are many manufacturers who can provide the same products. callable to presence of large number o f such manufacturers and the competition between them, their power is less. The antagonists include major brands like GAP and discount stores like Wal-Mart. The competitors have captured a large market share across the world in terms of children wear and have a brand loyal customer base. Due to the true size and the brand, the competitors have great power over small players. The buyers also have a significant clout over the industry players as they have got a lot of choices from different players. With a lot of brands to choose from, the customers can move to some other brand if they are dissatisfied with the quality, price or designs of the apparels of one player. There are no exact substitutes of children wear, though customers who just buy the apparels for fun and not exactly need them can switch to other stuffs which can entertain children like games, etc. Thus there is no significant power for substitutes in the industry. Potential entrants also have a significant influence on the industry as it is lucrative at present and has healthy profit margins, especially on designer ranges. This means that the industry is attractive for new players to enter and make the environment more competitive. (Freeman McVea 2001, pp. 102-108)There are mainly three types of strategic groups in this industry. In the first group competitors like GAP are present. Players in this group compete on the basis of quality and brand recognition. The second group includes players like Mark Spencers and Wal-Mart which compete on price and discounts. The third group includes players like Pumpkin Patch which compete based on the number of designs, variety and quality of the products. The fourth group includes players like JK which compete based on the variety, design and price. Looking at the analysis on the industry it can be seen that the industry has good opportunities in emerging economies and has substantial threat from the competitive players which will eventually pull down the profit margins of the industry.Internal AnalysisPumpkin Patch has had sufficient resources which has enabled it to reach at the point it has reached till 2005. The organization has about 1700 employees who work for it in various departments including its design, warehousing, marketing and selling. Its resources dedicated to come up with new designs have done great job to create brand awareness among the customers (Reichheld 2006, pp. 5-7). As far as warehousing is concerned, the organization has one warehouse at Auckland which supplies the products to various locations. This has also helped it in reducing its inventory personifys and channeling the products more smoothly. But organization lacks in having a proper supply chain abroad where still mostly the orders are sent through mail orders directly from Auckland. Further if the financial statements of the organization are observed, it can be seen that the assets of the organization have been increasing. In 2005, the current assets of the organization which determine the liquidity available at hands stands at NZ$ 72 million while the assets related to property and plant stand at NZ$ 35 million which is tiny as compared to its bigger competitors but tell the story of high growth of the organization since its start.The organization has done justification to the capabilities it had and capabilities it developed in order to achieve the growth. For example, Pumpkin Patch gave special emphasis on designs which are liked by the customers. By combining its own capability to piddle attractive designs with buying other good designs from outside made its designs as its core competency. More over focus on majorly children wear gave the organization touch over the others as the whole potential and energy of the organization was directed towards providing the products for children wear. The analysis and research of the market is another capability which has helped improving the profitability of the organization as throug h it, it could regularly remove the failed designs and promote the successful designs. Similarly product sourcing from quality manufacturers of Asia was one of the major capabilities as it helped in reducing the cost of the product because of cheap labor cost in Asia. However, cheap product sourcing is not a competitive advantage as it is available to every competitor in the market. Pumpkin Patch also has good quality control in its supply chain where there is continuous monitoring of quality at each and every smell. This capability also has helped the organization to build a brand for its products. But this is also not a core competency as other manufacturers like GAP and Benetton are known for equal if not better quality control. The organization also lacks in a more co-ordinated and smoother logistics as all the products have to be sourced from warehouse at Auckland which increases the time to respond and puts constraints on making use of the opportunities which its expanding c ustomer base at abroad provides (Thompson McHugh 2002, pp. 37-43). Also the retailing capability of the organization is limited to New Zealand and Australia and has no significant presence in its other major markets like US.The lever chain of the organization includes primary activities like RD for preparing designs for its new products. This activity adds the maximum value to Pumpkin Patchs products. It also includes product sourcing from manufacturers in Asia. This is also an important step as it helps to keep the product price lower and competitive. The quality control is another value addition which is done within the organization and outside organization as well. Here the products are checked for quality at every step. This also helps in adding value to the product as the lower quality of product can severely damage the brand image of Pumpkin Patch. With the current scale of operations, the next value adding activity of warehousing has provided good value to the organization as it has reduced the losses due to higher inventory (Barroso Galan 2006, pp. 54-56). But with increased scale of operations, this warehousing activity will cause a major constraint for the organization. Retailing is another major value adding activity as the stores give an image of the trendiest children wear providers. Retailing also provides substantial value to Pumpkin Patch as it helps to bring more customers for it and also in increasing its brand recognition as the retail stores are designed and prepared in such a way to communicate the brand of the organization. The organization also has some weaknesses such as limited logistics capability to cater to the demands of customers from Yankee hemisphere, smaller size and financial power to compete with major brands like GAP and Benetton.Looking at the analysis above it can be said that the organization has strengths in its design capabilities and building brand through retail stores. The weaknesses of the organization include t he lack of capable logistics to manage higher growth in northern hemisphere and smaller financial resources to compete in other established markets. The organization has more opportunities in expanding itself in Australia, New Zealand where its brand has good recognition and in emerging economies where there is thin presence of its established competitors. The threat to the organization is majorly due to its limited logistics capabilities because its competitors like JK can eat up its markets if Pumpkin Patch fails to act on it.Current StrategyThe strategy currently followed by the organization is of differentiation focus. This means that the organization has a select socio-economic class of customers to which it caters and also provides a differentiated product to the customers (Hoskisson Hitt 2006, pp. 23-27). In this case Pumpkin Patch is mostly catering to the children and pre-teen customers thus it has a focus approach or niche market. Also the organization is providing a gre at range of designer products to the customers thus it is also differentiating itself from the competitors on the basis of the varieties and range of designs it offers to its customers. The current strategy has been quite an successful up till now when the organization has only expanded itself into selected markets. The success of this strategy comes from the fact that there are many players in the apparel market but only few have a complete focus towards children wear which is an all-weather market and provides great opportunity for profitability. By focus itself towards this niche market, Pumpkin Patch was able to create a brand image of it which has complete focus towards children wear. On top of that the organizations high range of designs keeps it obscure from the other players. Even GAP and Benetton dont have so many varieties of designs when it comes to children wear.RecommendationsThe organization must way into following recommendations and try to implement them in orde r to run a profitable organization even in future.Pumpkin Patch must increase its capacity, especially logistics capacity in US and UK where due to these constraints the organization hasnt been able to establish itself in these markets. These two markets are too large and lucrative to be ignored thus it must try to increase its retail presence here. Even if the organization can capture a small share of market of these markets from GAP, Benetton or Wal-Mart, it will be a huge encouragement to its current revenues.Pumpkin Patch must also look at the markets in emerging economies like China, South Korea and South Africa where the disposable income is increasing for the population and demographically they will have a large number of their population as children. Thus for maintaining long term profitability the organization must also look at ways for entering these markets. Initially the organization can start with online selling and whole selling in departmental stores selling because that will gather up the least investment. (Jeannet Hennessey 2001, pp. 20-25)Pumpkin Patch must completely abandon its print catalogs as they consume a lot of resources (finances, time and attention). Anyhow the print catalogs are no more relevant with ever decreasing mail order selling. Instead for mail orders organization can have better and more detailed online catalogs. The customers who cant reach the retail stores can go to website and select the product they want.ConclusionPumpkin Patch is operating in apparel industry but is mostly catering to children wear market. The industry in 2005 is operating in a good external environment but the demographics suggest that the children wear market will shift towards emerging economies in next few years. The environment also sees fierce competition among various players thus it is important for Pumpkin Patch to maintain and extend its presence by use of its competitive advantage of great range of designs and brand associated with ch ildren wear. In order to do that organization must strengthen its presence in countries like UK and US which hold lot of potential for its growth. Also it must try to start catering to customers from emerging economies which will help it in long run.

Expansion difficulties with IKEA

Expansion difficulties with IKEACross Cultural ManagementIndividual paper work capitulumAlthough IKEA is a highly successful global player it has recently experienced problem in its expansion in Russia (Vasilyeva, 2009). Based on the material in Jackson (2002) discuss critic all in ally how IKEA has succeeded in instilling its Swedish shipway of managing into its international subsidiaries, considering also whether cultural factors have any relevance to its current difficulties in Russia.IntroductionBefore going in the question i.e. the problems IKEA is facing in Russia, we entrust discuss most IKEA, Sweden and IKEA in France, Ger numerous, Spain and United States of America.Discussing about IKEA, we will bop the history first, IKEA, as we all know is a Swedish company. It was started by Ingvar Kamprad in 1943, and since has grown to become worlds largest retailers of furnishing. IKEA got its wee-wee from the initials of four words, the first two from the name of the founder, In gvar Kamprad. Making I and K, and the second two from the letters of Emltaryd and Agunnaryd, the farm and the village he grew up in. IKEA started by selling pens, wallets watches etc, notwithstanding out of all the piece of furniture it sold got the greatest response, so, it opened its first store in Sweden in 1958. And in Norway and in Denmark in 1963 and 1969 respectively.CultureWe will define the IKEAs and the Swedish refining based on Hofstedes four dimensions.The four dimensions are government agency distanceUncertainty avoidanceIndividualism and collectivismMasculinity and femininity.More or less(prenominal) the IKEA and the Swedish cultures and same, the simple reason macrocosm that IKEA is a Swedish company. Now according to the Hofstedes dimensions we can compare and tell about the cultures.We will start from the Power distance dimension, this dimension is about the distance between the employees and the managers of the company, in short, equal relations are also seen a s normal in few cultures and raze inequality is seen as normal in some. In Sweden, the managers and the organizational employees scored very low, i.e. t here world power distance is very low, they all are considered more or less equal. They scored 31 making it a follower of low power distance where 104 is the maximum and 11 creation the minimum.The second dimension we will prate about is Uncertainty avoidance, by Hofstedes definition and from the minded(p) courtship study (Jackson, 2002), it says that, this refers to a preference for structured situations versus unstructured situations. This dimension runs from being comfortable with tractableness and ambiguity to a subscribe for extreme rigidity and situations with a high degree of certainty. Here again Sweden scored 29, which is low, compared to other countries care Spain and France scoring 86. 8 being minimum here and 112 being the maximum.Third in the list is Individualism and Collectivism, this factor or dimension is a bout the mentality or way of running(a) of employees, that is, are they used to work as a individuals or as a assemblage. This is again a important factor, which diametricaliates between the cultures. In this dimension Sweden scored 71, and here 6 being minimum and 91 being maximum. This means the Swedish culture is more individualistic.The fourth one is Masculinity and femininity, now again, according to the given case study, Hofstede (1980a) distinguishes hard value such as assertiveness and competition, and the soft or female values of personal relations, quality of life and caring about others, where in masculine society gender role differentiation is emphasized. So in this dimension, Sweden scored 5, which is the lowest and 95being the highest. This implies us that Swedish culture is a very feminine culture, that is they are very soft and caring kind of people.So to sum up all, we can say that Swedish culture is a low power distance, again low on uncertainty avoidance, high on individualism and a feminine culture. IKEA being a Swedish company fallows the similar culture, just now, being a global player and having its existence in other different counties it flavord a hand out of cultural conflicts. IKEA had an organizational culture similar to Swedish culture, but when it went to France or Spain or United States of America, it faced little problems there and a lot in Russia.Cultural DifferencesA global player is a company which works worldwide handlewise, IKEA is a global player. It is a Swedish company and as talked about, its organizational culture is similar to the Swedish national culture. IKEA forever and a day wanted to maintain its unique Swedishness. This was essential to maintain because it was there competitive advantage over other competitors and along with this, it wanted to adapt to the other different national cultures it was working in. Well that is the sign of the global player. IKEA fitted perfect in this.Over the years, IKEA sp read its market mainly in Europe, North America, Middle East, Singapore, Hong Kong, Mainland chinaware and Russia. Germany, France and Sweden were its single biggest markets. It has also recently taken over Habitat, another competitor in the UK and France.IKEAs international headquarters are in Almhult, a remote repair in Sweden where only Swedish is spoken, this is the place where products are designed and all the important decisions are do.Well now before we speak of Cultural differences, we will discuss about the key IKEAN cultures. They believe that a person learns by doing mistakes, it is seen as a way of learning. They encourage practically solving the problems. The managers from IKEA generally evaluate to share the information they have, their knowledge and skills with the employees. Hence it states employees are also considered very important in the organization and are encouraged the work and are made feel responsible. The management style is seen very casual, informal , open and caring. Hierarchy system is almost flat, with three levels of responsibilities at the store level store managers and co-workers. Co- workers may be employees or associates.The managers do not give titles on their business cards. The bureaucratic approach and status barriers are disparaged and the managers are expected to be friendly, understanding and ending with the employees. The employees are also provided with a small formal provision. In this culture humbleness is not seen as weakness and learning from experiences, though it takes a lot of time and patience but is a condition for moving up the ladder.Testaments of a Furniture Dealer a book by the founder, which sets out his school of thought is distributed throughout the organization. The managers are seen as and encouraged to act as missionaries. And up to now one week seminar or training is provided for the managers who have not been directly exposed to the founders philosophy. Whenever IKEA opens a new store in any other country than Sweden, the store is first run by a tight knit group of managers or even called as missionaries who are in position to make of the decisions and are able to solve problems in typical IKEAN way. They are in management of the store until the store is handed over to the local managers. Overall IKEA offers good and pleasant working environment, job security and a caring attitude to its employees.Overseas, all this has proved relatively easy in Netherlands, but didnt work in some countries, say for example in Germany, France, United States of America and Spain.Like in Germany, managers are not used to be called by first names and undermining managers authority. They are used to do what managers say, they usually take all the ordinances from the managers, they are not used to do work by taking owns initiative. In Germany managers suggestion are generally taken as orders. And IKEAs methods were considered as distinct or not clear.In France, unlike Sweden, inform ality is seen as a weakness. Being informal is considered as being indecisive. And even no formal job titles meant loss of identicalness it was creating problems because they felt like they were lost in the crowd.But in United States of America, the older workers had a bit of problem working with the young American managers because of their ways of doing things. The young American managers showed a lack of elegance with the employees, but they went off with ease with the Swedish managers. But again, on the other side, there was a difference in the perception, Sweden did not believe in individual awards to maintain equality and avoid discrimination between the workers and the employees. American managers thought that it was slowing their progress in the company they had second thoughts about their future in the company, and as the result they lost their key American managers.To overcome these problems IKEA had to work on some stuff, like in France to attract and retain the employees , they had to provide clear communication with the facts and figures, just to highlight the benefits of IKEA over its competitors. And had to create some formal training programmes for the new employees, preferably of the traditional learning by doing and experience methodology. And even did some changes for the other countries as well. IKEA also gave more autonomy to the local management.In the case study, by Jackson T (2002), he gave a bit more emphasis on IKEA in Spain. It is said that IKEA was a complete unknown when it entered Spain. And since then is has change integrity the IKEA culture and its Swedish characters in its Spanish Subsidiaries. Firstly, a network of Swedish managers was sent to Spain to pass on their knowhow and IKEA culture to the local management. This turned out to be an extremely important stepping stone in IKEAs entry in Spain.Even the selection of the employees is important, selecting the right people is perfect way of preserving the IKEA culture. To sel ect the employees who have not been contaminated by the culture of other companies. Moreover awareness for IKEA culture is created through introductory programmes for the co-workers and the employees by IKEA Way, during which, participants are given lectures on IKEAs history, human resources ideas, and many more and by official scriptures, handbooks and other IKEA documents.The IKEAs culture, i.e. the methods they fallow, are very different from the normal style in Spain. IKEA is taking a more serious and assured approach in developing the organization and adjusting it for the local needs. In this case, the first step was by recruiting a Spanish human resource manager. They even provided off-the-job training courses, this was done on the strong demand of the co-workers. Again the important point is they adapted a flexible salary approach is developed in order to attract and retain competent employees.Problems in RussiaIKEA entered Russia almost after 5 decades of its international existence. Year 2000 was the entry year for IKEA in Russia. But unfortunately it had to face a lot of problems in Russia. IKEA has opened 12 stores in Russia till the date in all over the country. It has invested around $4 billion in the Russian market. IKEA saw Russia as a lucrative market it was like a gold mine for IKEA. IKEA was on the verge of becoming the potent figure of Russian consumer boom. It started attracting the young generation of the country. It was also building giant shopping malls in various cities of Russia. Overall the start was looking good. But the problems they faced were mainly the corruption in the country.Corruption was the biggest and the most disturbing problem that IKEA had to face. Russian President Dmitri A. Medvedev also acknowledge on the fact that corruption is Russias national problem. On 23rd June 2009, IKEA announced that it is suspending its future investments in Russia for the time being. The official reason was given by IKEA country manage, Per Kaufmann, was the unpredictability of administrative processes in Russia. But some of the observers even believe that corruption within the country and demand for bribes was the other important reason for the decision made. The founder Ingvar Kamprad was firm on his decision that he was going to solve the problem without gravid bribes.For example, in year 2004, when IKEA was about to open a outlet in Moscow, the officials there delayed the opening by giving reasons like, the parking of the store was near the gas pipe line, and because of the safety reason, they could not open it on the given date. The same thing happened with the outlet in Samara it was delayed 8 times and still has not opened. It was about to open in November 2007, it has been 2 years and still it is at the same place.They gave a different reason every time, the recent reason was, and the store was not hurricane resistant. And was not safe, but there was data of so power hurricanes in that area. And even at th e time of opening a first store in the out skirts of Moscow, they needed electricity, the officials increased the rate of the electricity, as a backup plan, they had generators, but the generator company, also increased their rates. IKEA tried to sue the company for this but unfortunately, it lost the case and in return had to pay a amount as compensation to them.IKEA also had to face accusation made by Russias anti-trust watchdog when it investigated and accused that IKEA urges the tenants at its mall outside Moscow to use services of selected companies. mob Franker, head of Moscow based Red Star Asset Management also said a few things on the Russian economy like, They need GDP growth to help them expand, and thats reversed and he also commented about the informal taxation being very high in Russia.ConclusionAt last in the conclusion, we can say that, IKEA follows a totally different culture, it also had to face a lot of problems in other countries as well, but in Russia it had a l ot more serious problems. The main problem being the corruption of the country. As given to us, Transparency International ranks Russia 147th out of 180, with countries like Kenya, Syria and Bangladesh. IKEA has stopped the investments in Russian furthermore due to such problems. In a situation where Ingvar Kamprad wants to be firm on his stand of not giving bribes, let us see what IKEA has in its future in Russia and around the world.BibliographyCase study- Jackson T (2002), International HRM A overlay-cultural approachRey French, cross cultural management in work organizationIkea, http//www.ikea.com/ms/en_US/about_ikea/facts_and_figures/ikea_group_stores/russia.html.http//www.kwintessential.co.uk/resourses/global-etiquette/sweden.htmlIkea upbeat Russia after 10 years of problem, Alex Anishyuk, Moscow times,http//www.cdi.org/russia/Johnson/2009-160-7.cfm.Why is Ikea fed up with Russia, Jason Bush, http//www.businessweek.com/ time/content/09_28/b4139033326721.htm.Ikea turns sour o n Russia,http//www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/blog/europeinsight/archives/2009/06/ikea_turns_sour.html.Ikea plans to halt investment in Russia, Andrew E Kramer, http//www.nytimes.com/2009/06/24/business/global/24ruble.html.Ikea tries to build public case against Russian corruption, Andrew E Kramer,http//www.nytimes.com/2009/09/12/business/global/12ikea.html?_r=1pagewanted=2

Airline Cabin Crew Resource Management (CRM)

Air kris Cabin Crew Resource focussing (CRM)Cabin caboodle forms an important part of safety valve operation. They take the responsibility of the people aboard an aircraft. For a grand time, cabin crews have been criticized for taking causal approach to aircraft safety leading to death of thousands of people. It is delinquent to change magnitudeincidences of forgiving error in aircraft accidents that led todevelopment ofCrew Resource Management (CRM) notion. Thanks to CRM, todays flights and cabin crews argon quite different from those of archaean days of commercial aviation. The captain in the aircraft was once taken to be the God during flight had his decisions and commands were not questioned. in that respect was very little input from pilots because it was put on that captain knows all and it would appear disrespectful to question the decision of the superior. This kind of relationship did not go well with civilian cockpits and the issuance of accidents which could be attributed to cabin crew errors increased. Airline accidents that were cogitate to pilot errors claimed hundreds of lives andthe knowledge of cabin crew on handling flights came to be questioned. For example in 1978, linked 171 ran out of evoke fly over Portland and unfortunately, this was not noticed even by the cabin crew until it was too late. In 1982, Air Florida 90 failed to be properly de-iced and it crashed concisely after it had taken off from Washington. It was also revealed thatall the standard operating procedures had been violated by the cabin crew. Its a series of suchaccidents that could be attributed to sympathetic errors that led toimplementation of Crew Resource Management in a bid to empower them with skills onhow to handle flights. In 1980, linked Airlines formally instituted a readiness syllabus that came to be known as Crew Resource Management (CRM) which was aimed at provideping the whole cabin crew, including pilots, flight attendants, mechanics, di spatchers, and early(a)s with person-to-person and interpersonal skill to handle flights with safety. CRM mainly emphasizes on the principles and concept of improving crew performance and flight safety. Although it has been criticized by some people in the sense that in that respect has been accidents attributed to human errors despite its existence for more than three decades, it has generally been acknowledged that CRM cannot solve all the problems related to human errors but it goes an extra mile to equip pilots and cabin crew members with important safety nebs they need to observe during a flight. It is a not a panacea of aircraft accidents but it can make a huge impact on mitigation human related aircraft accidents.What is CRM?Crew Resource Management (CRM) can be defined as a desex of procedures and teach system which is meant to mitigate the impact of human errors on flight. The main aim of CRM is to improve air safety through reduction of human errors (Aviation Knowle dge, 2010). It is mainly focused on human factors same(p) interpersonal communication, leadership, and decision making process in the cockpit, which have been found to be major factors contributing to aircraft accidents. CRM concept was born out a NASA worship that was held in 1979 but since then, it has evolved in different ways being expanded to include more crews.CRM mainly cross a wide range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which are major human factors during flight (Aviation Knowledge, 2010). It encompass a wide range of factors like communication, concomitantal knowingness, problem understand, decision making, teamwork, and many a(prenominal) others which are pertinent to cabin crew during flight. These factor are not bare-assed in aviation but they have been recognized for a long time since aviation began and have been expressed in general terms like airmanship, captaincy, crew co-operation, and many others but have never been given the inevitable attention until recently when human errors were recognized as major factor in aviation safety. Putting into consideration all these aspects, CRM can thitherfore be defined as a management system which make use the resources available, mainly equipments, procedures and people, in order to enhance safety and efficiency during flight (The lofty Aeronautical Society, 2010).CRM is not concerned much with the technical knowledge and skills in flight operation but rather it aims and reducing human errors and enhancing human receipt in instance of safety breach during flight (The lofty Aeronautical Society, 2010). CRM is in that locationfore concerned with cognitive and interpersonal skills which are necessary to manage flight. It targets to undertake cognitive and interpersonal skills of the crew to enhance safety and efficiency. Cognitive skills encompass the mental processes which are used to gain situational awareness, which are important in solving problems and taking immediate decisions. On the other hand, interpersonal skills mainly encompass communication and other mien skills that enhance teamwork. In aviation, these skills mainly intercept and lap now and then, together with the technical skills.CRM and aviation accidentsThe main reason behind introduction of CRM was in response to the rising trope of accidents which were attributed to human error (The Royal Aeronautical Society, 2010). During 1950s, there was introduction of turbojets that were considered more reliant and wherefore, there was reduction in the number of aircraft accidents that were attributed to technical failure. The problem of air flames and engine failure soft diminished with coming of more reliable jets and the number of accidents reduced. Between 1959 and 1989, more than 85% of all accidents were attributed to flight crew errors while only less than 10% could be attributed to technical condition (Aviation Knowledge, 2010 Wiener, 1993). Less than 5% could be attributed to maintenance, weather , airport condition, and other causes (Wiener, 1993). From 1950s, number of human error aviation accidents worldwide rose precipitously and this became a major concern for near countries. With recognition of human performance problem, there was growing interest to understand the meaning of pilot error, which became common in most aircraft accident reports.Most of the reports on aircraft accidents, especially those which were compiled by NTSB gave chilling documentation citing instances of pilot error which included (Wiener, 1993)One report cited a case where a crew was distracted by failing landing gear indicator light did not notice that the automatic pilot had been disengaged and consequently allowed the aircraft to reduce into a swamp.In another report, a co-pilot who was concerned that the take-off thrust had not been properly set when departing in a snow storm, failed to get captains attention and consequently the aircraft stalled and crashed into Potomac River.Another repor t cited an incidence where the crew failed to review the landing charts and navigation position properly and further ignored warning from Ground Proximity standard System and the aircraft crashed into a mountain below as the aircraft exceeded the minimum descent altitude.A crew who had been distracted by non-operational communication failed to complete all checklists and crashed on take-off because all the flaps had not been extended.Another reported cited constrained communication between captain, co-pilot, and the Traffic Control on the fueling of the aircraft and consequently crashed due to debilitation of fuel.A crew crashed on take-off due to icing on the wings even after asking about de-icing facilities. Also, a flight attendant failed to notify about the concerns that had been on by the pilot about de-icing.The theme that emerges in all these cases is that of human error, which is attributed to different factors ranging from interpersonal communication to ignorance. Even b efore these reports were documented, there had been other studies which had revealed the negative side of human errors in aviation and there was need to take immediate action to address the situation.Various studies in seventies revealed that human errors in aircraft accidents could be classified in three broad categories base on behavior approach (Diehl, 1991). These included procedural, perceptual motor, and decisional undertaking. Procedural task which could lead to pilot error include mismanagement of vehicle subsystem and configuration problems and other related errors like retracting the landing gear rather than flaps or just overlooking the provided checklist items. Perceptual motor tasks comprise of tasks like manipulation of flight controls and throttles which would lead to errors like shooting a glide-slope indication and many others. mass of pilot errors were however attributed to decision task which can range from flight planning to hazard evaluation (Aviation Knowled ge, 2010). These would result to errors like failure to properly point tasks during emergencies. Analysis of fatal accidents which could be attributed to pilot errors revealed that perceptual motor and decisional procedures were major contributors of pilot errors.CRM cultivation was leaded in the 1980s as a measure to address the above mentioned areas that results to pilot errors. CRM aims at harnessing personal skills in all these areas to reduce crew errors (Diehl, 1991). In order to reduce aviation accidents, CRM programs have been aimed at addressing two main areas including aeronautical decision making (ADM) and situational awareness.Aeronautical decision making include judgment culture programs which are cognitive based. It is aimed at enhancing attitudes and behavior of the crew members. These skills have been applied to train other crew members apart from pilots. Training on ADM is based on the fact that decision making comes from a feedback mechanism where the pilot has to manage his or her attention and make prompt decision to save flight in case of insecurity. On the other hand, situational awareness is aimed at enhancing attention and task management for the pilots. This is aimed at helping the crew to manage the situation at hand using the most appropriate technique.In some(prenominal) civil and military aviation, records designates that CRM has reduced the number of fatal accidents and aircraft mischances which can be attributed to human errors. In U.S Navy, the rate of aircrew mishap was reduced from 7.89 in 1986 to just 1.43 in 1990 after CRM was adopted, representing an 81% improvement. In USAF, a five year period comparison before and after CRM was adopted in 1985 shows that the number of aircrafts destroyed due to crew error reduced from 21 to 10, a 52% improvement (Diehl, 1991). in that respect is evidence in civil aviation that exemplifies how CRM has helped crew to manage situations at hand. For example Captain Al Haynes of Unite d Airlines Flight 232 credited CRM for having their life while ready in Sioux City, Iowa, in 1989. In this situation the traditional concept of captaincy was ignored and all pilots on board gave their contribution which effectively saved the whole aircraft and those on board (Dorsett, 1993).History CRM and growing of CRM TrainingCRM can be traced to1980s when United Airlines first started CRM classes. The root development of CRM can be traced back to a workshop that was held in 1979 by subject Aeronautics and Space Administration. The 1979 conference was an important turning point in the history of Crew Resource Management as it provided the base for exploration of the increased number of accidents that were related to human error (Aviation Knowledge, 2010). The conference was considered an outgrowth of NASA research which was aimed at exploring the cause of increased air transport accidents. The NASA research, which was presented in the conference, made case to human error in t he recent accidents citing a number of factors including failure for communication, delayed or wrong decision making, leadership, and others. It was during this meeting that the label Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) came to be used to refer to the process of study crews in efforts to reduce human pilot error during flight through use of human resources on the flight blow up (Helmreich, Merrit and Wilhelm, 1999). This conference had brought together major carriers in United States and a number of carriers present became committed to put in place pedagogy programs that would ensure pilots were well trained on how to harness human resources during flight.From that conference, many airlines put in place programs that were aimed at enhancing crew resources on the flight deck. United Airlines became one of the first airlines that put in place a CRM program that trained all its pilots on how to use human resources on the flight deck (Helmreich et al., 1999). Almost every airline today has a CRM program running. In addition, CRM has since then evolved to target all crews and the word cockpit was replaced with the word crew to reflect the target.CRM has evolved in different states. The initial CRM program, which can be regarded as the first extension CRM was initiated by United Airlines between 1980 and 1981. The first generation of CRM programs was developed by consultants who had been indulged in formulation of management programs to improve management effectiveness. The first United Airline CRM module was formulated like Managerial Grid which had been used in psychological science (Helmreich et al., 1999). Under the program, education was conduction in a seminar setting and it mainly involved diagnoses of individual managerial style and skills. Most of the CRM programs which were developed during this era were firmly reliant on management reproduction approaches. They were mainly aimed at changing management styles and correction of individual deficiencies. For example, they aimed at correcting individual lack of assertiveness for the juniors to exceed the concept of captain is always right and to remove the authoritarian approach of the captains. These courses were mainly physiological and based on general concept of leadership. Although the advocated for strategies to improve personal behavior, they did not give a imbibe definition of the appropriate personal behavior in the flight deck. These CRM programs were also made re true rather the occasional(a) and they used games and exercises, some which were not related to aviation concepts. However, these programs met resistance especially from pilots who described them as charm schools that were merely aimed at changing their personalities.The second generation CRM programs were developed to improve on the programs discussed above. In 1986, NASA held a workshop which was aimed at discussing the emerging challenges facing the implementation of CRM programs (Helmreich et al., 1999). F rom the conference, it emerged that CRM would soon cease to be a stand-alone training when it would be incorporate in flight training and also in flight operations. Around this period, there was cutting generation of CRM programs that were coming into the market. These programs changed the come to cockpit and replaced it with crew in order to reflect the diversity of the targets since it become evident that apart from pilots, other crew members, including mechanics, had a major role to play in flight safety. The new programs became a blue print of Delta Airlines program that was focused more on the given aviation concepts, which were related to flight operations (Helmreich et al., 1999). The new programs were also modular and team oriented compared to the earlier programs. They were also delivered through seminars but dwelt on important aspect of flight like team building, apprise strategies, stress management, and others which had been eliminated from initial trainings. The dept h of the module was implanted on the decision making strategies and the strategies that crews could use to break chain of errors that were likely to land the flight into catastrophe. However, there was no much distinction between these programs and the first generation program since training was mainly carried out through exercise and demonstrations which sometimes were not related to aviation. These programs were accepted more than the first generation program. They were however criticized for being psycho-babble. Most of these second generation program continue to be used in United States and other parts of the world as well.Third generation CRM were mainly involved with broadening the scope. These programs emerged in 1990s and CRM training was beginning to take a trend to multiple paths. The training started becoming more related to situation in aviation system which reflected the way crew functioned with inclusion of multiple factors like organizational culture and others which determined safety. Third generation programs also began to show signs of integration of CRM with technical training and there was focus on specific skills and behaviors which could be employed by pilots to be more effective (Helmreich et al., 1999). Third generation programs also addressed issues of recognition and assessment of human factors and there were advanced training for all check airmen and others who were responsible for training and evaluation of human factors. This means that third generation programs went beyond the normal target of cabin crew alone. This expanding upon of CRM made it possible to include other flight crew like flight attendants, dispatchers, and the maintenance personnel. Airlines were also extending the reach of their program and most of them started conducting joint cockpit-cabin training. There were also carriers who came up with specialized CRM training for all the new captains since they were going to take up leadership position on most flights. I t is therefore clear that third generation CRM programs recognized the need to extend the concept flight crew to include others who were not considered as a part of the crew before. reduction of human errors could not be ensured without increasing the reach to include other crews.In 1990, Federal Aviation Administration developed a new training and qualification program which was meant to align with newly introduced Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) (Helmreich et al., 1999). AQP was developed as a voluntary program, which allows airlines to come up with innovative training fitting to their needs. However, there was a condition for airlines to be allowed t use AQP, one of the conditions being adopted of CRM and LOFT for their flight crews. They were also required to desegregate CRM principles concepts with their technical training. Currently, most airlines in the United States are still transiting to AQP in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations Part 121 and 135 (Helmreich et al., 1999). In order to to the full shift to AQP, airlines are required to carry out a detailed analysis of their training requirements for each of their aircraft and come up with CRM programs that mitigates human factors. In addition, most airlines have also started to prioritize the concepts that are evaluating the specific behaviors to be added to their check list. This is meant to ensure that decisions and actions taken are based on informed considerations and the basic principles are taken into consideration.The fourth generations CRM program are aimed at solving the problem of human errors in aviation through integration of CRM into the flight training. The recent trends show that explicit CRM training is going away. Although there is no empirical data available, there is census in the airline industry that AQP impart yield improving in training and qualifications of crews increasing the probability of elimination of human errors (Helmreich et al., 1999). However, the sit uation remains more complex and there is no direct resolution as the program is still evolving.CRM in civil and military applicationsCRM has been applied in both civil and military crews as they are both faced with danger of pilot errors. CRM has evolved over the years and today, it is a part of pilot training. It is considered a necessity and has imbedded in crew training. FAA issued an advisory circular (AC) 120-51 which stipulates the need for CRM training with behavioural markers which include three main areas (Helmreich et al., 1999). First, FAA emphasizes on communication process and decision making behavior which include briefings, inquiry, crew self-critique, and communication/design. Second, it emphasize on team building and maintenances including leadership, interpersonal relationships, and group climate. Third, it emphasize on workload management and situational awareness including preparing and planning, workload distribution, and avoiding distractions.Since 1980s when C RM was first adopted by United Airlines, other airlines have followed suite and today every airline has a CRM program. In addition, airlines started expanding CRM programs to other related fields. While initially CRM was meant for pilots, it was expanded to cover air employment control, aircraft design, and maintenance in third and fourth generation of CRM. In 2000, FAA issued Advisory Circular 120-72 which put in place Maintenance Resource Management training (MRM) which expanded the reach of CRM (Diehl, 1991). CRM in aviation has evolved from first generation CRM to the current fourth generation programs that have continued to change in approach, content and reach.There is enough evidence which shows that CRM has been applied in military, even earlier than in civil aviation although it came to limelight only after it was applied in civil aviation. Situational awareness training has been recorded in military aviation. For example during 1970s, USAF replaced F-4 with single seat F- 15 (Diehl, 1991). Consequently, this raised concerns about pilot workload and situational emergency training was undertaken to accustom pilots with situational emergency skills. USAF Tactical Air Command also has an Aircrew Attention Awareness Management Program that is uniquely designed to attend fighter pilots and all weaponry system officers with skill which impose on their physiological and psychological factors that affect their efficiency. They are taken through special training by trained physiologists assigned to fighter training unit.In 1980s, U.S Air National Guard was concerned that the A-7 pilots would not maintain proficiency while flying on low attitudes (Diehl, 1991). This was considered a major challenge considering that military flying is sensitive and any error could result to the disaster for the whole country. Consequently, it started the Low positioning Training program which taught pilots how to overcome the hazards which were posed by operation in low attitu des, highly dangerous and critical environment. For example, it was realized that there was danger of flying low over bushes in desserts because they appeared to be of the same size as big trees at a higher speed.U.S Navy, through the Naval Safety Center, reviewed and instituted new CRM programs in 1986. They formally instituted CRM training programs for all Navy and Marine Corps helicopter in 1987 (Diehl, 1991). In 1988, they started CRM training for A-6/EA Intruder fighter-bomber units. Military records show that since these programs were started, the number of helicopter mishaps has reduced drastically. For example, for the fighter-bombers, the rate of aircrew mishap in 1990 was 1.43 compared to 7.86 in 1986 before these program were started, which represent about 81% improvement rate (Diehl, 1991). In USAF Airlift Command, MAC was the first military organization to introduce CRM training in 1985, referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training. With more than 1,000 transporters and helicopters, this organization was suited to adopt CRM training. Over a period of 5 years, 1981-1985 was compared to another period of 5 years, 1986-1990, and the number of aircrafts destroyed reduced from 21 to 10, which was a 52% improvement. The rate of mishap reduced by 51 (Diehl, 1991).The future of CRMConsidering the historical development, it is evident that the future of CRM is bright and promising. CRM has continued to be refined over the years to address he intended purpose. The future of CRM lies in development of fight generation CRM that exit be focused on searching for a universal rationale. The future will be looking for development of a CRM program that would be endorse by pilots all over the world (Helmreich et al., 1999). This would be developed in line of need for error management approach. This would give an explicit reason why CRM emphasize on development of specific behaviors and how they should be applied.The fifth generation CRM program will be based on the approach that human errors are inevitable and ubiquitous. Hence they would be viewed as valuable source of information for their management. If errors will be considered inevitable, then CRM will be perceived as error countermeasures in three realms (Helmreich et al., 1999). First realm would be avoiding the errors. The second realm would be trapping the errors before they precipitate. Third realm would be mitigating the effects of the errors if they occur.Therefore, the future of CRM would rely on the collaboration between organizations and their crew. It will take an approach of non retaliatory measures for errors once committed based on earlier presumption that errors are inevitable. Organizations will therefore have to normalize errors and take steps to identify their nature and sources. FAA will continue issues new safety aviation safety programs which will affect CRM in different ways (Helmreich et al., 1999). Therefore, future of CRM will be based on normalization of error s and development of error management strategies.ConclusionCrew Resource Management (CRM) encompass wide range of programs that are aimed at training crew members on management of interpersonal and decision making factors that contribute to errors during flight. CRM was developed in response to the rising number of aviation accidents which could be attributed to human errors. CRM programs have evolved over a period time to expand its reach to more crew members apart from pilots. CRM has reduced the number of accidents attributed to human errors in both civil and military aviation. The future of CRM will be in development of fifth generation CRM programs that will be based on error management. If the current trend in development of CRM is maintained, the future aviation industry will significantly reduce fatal accidents and mishaps attributed to human errors.

The Lure of Polo Through the Years :: Games Sports Essays

The Lure of Polo Through the YearsDangerous, thrilling, addictivehowever you choose to describe the modern farinaceous of polo, you can be sure that someone utilize those same words thousands of years ago for the same purpose. Polo, as it is compete to daylight, is merely a expositment of games played as early as the 6th century B.C. It has been said, in many languages and in many time periods, He who plays polo once will sacrifice his money and body to play again. Polo has survived for over 2 thousand years its addiction must be as powerful as players claim.The sport of kings is one of the oldest sports still in existence today. In fact, versions of the game were played so long ago that a definite origin of the game cannot be determined. Due to the expense of owning and training the best horses, it was primarily nobles who played the game. Because of this, polo was spread as nations conquered separates, and it disappeared in areas as noble classes died. Thus, the game was oft en born and reborn in so many versions that the term polo (translated from several ancient and modern languages) grew to encompass a wide variety of games involving a stick, ball and players on horseback.Many historians will trace polos roots back to Persia (modern day Iran), where the game developed from its most raw and dangerous form. The Persians, who were among the first to domesticate horses and use them in warfare, began playing games on horseback in order to refine their equestrian skills. The game of choice involved any number of players on horseback all attempting to hit a round object with mallets past the other teams final players. Sometimes hundreds of players were on each team, and the object they were fighting over ranged from balls, to goats, to decapitated human heads. With so many players and no regulation, polo promptly became a sport in which collisions, ill-trained horses, and human error could easily cause injury and even death.Despite the obvious dangers one encounters while playing polo, it was a popular activity for armies and nobles. For cavalry, polo provided a venue for displaying ones athleticism, poise, quick thinking, and boldness. In fact, kings from many nations used polo as an easy way to determine appointments for semipolitical and army positions. Often, the best polo players were the only ones who could surpass their natural born social class.

The Problem of Teen Alcoholism in the United States Essay -- Drinking

From pastures to unsupervised blowouts at home, the social calendars of most teens argon teeming of alcohol. Other drugs rise and f any in popularity from generation to generation, but alcohol never really goes out of style. From being worshiped by the ancient Babylonians to being proscribe to teenagers, alcohol has caused many problems. Today, drinking is the drug of choice by teens and causes most wrecks and deaths today. To understand alcohol people must first know the history of alcohol, the effects of teen drinking, and the solutions to teen drinking. inebriant has been all around the world for centuries and has become a custom of people all over. No one knows for sure who observe alcohol, but we know how different types of alcohol are make. Just as well, no know knows when alcohol was discovered. There are no records of the discovery or discoverers of alcohol. Although historians do know alcohol ?was used by primitive people and recorded as early as 10,000 years ago in the neolithic period and by European civilization?(Milgram 22). As early as 5000 B.C., the ancient Babylonians brewed, the process of making beer, their beer in religious temples because it was considered a gift from God. Beer is an downpour beverage make by fermentation of cereal grains such as, wheat, rye, corn, or barley beer contains 3 to 6 percent alcohol. Besides the ancient Babylonians, the ancient Egyptians drank beer. The Egyptians called their beer hek, which was made from barley bread. The bread was crumbled into jars, covered with water, and allowed to ferment. The Egyptian pharaohs blessed this beer in the honor of the goddess of nature, Isis. Egyptians handed out free jugs of beer to peasant workers, and by no surprise deglutition was a common problem in ancient Egypt (Nielsen 13).The strongest alcohol drinks are called liquors or spirits. An Arabian alchemist named Geber discovered liquor in the eighteenth century A.D. Geber made liquor by distillation, burning away the impurities that formed in wine during fermentation and isolated the remaining liquids. As a result, the concentrated liquid had a higher alcoholic content, which was ?mainly flavored alcohol and water?(Milgram 65). Arnaud de Villanueva discovered liquor in Europe 500 years later, when he made brandy. Arnaud claimed that brandy would cure all humanity?s diseases, prolong life, maintain youth, a... ...o 21 in Mexico and Canada, it would help cut down on teenage drinking. Everyday teenagers drink, despite the many dangers and risks that they are taking every time they drink. Throughout history and probably in the future, alcohol will be the leading drug of choice for teenagers. On the different hand, teenagers in turn are becoming better educated about themselves and the risk of alcohol.Work Cited?Alcohol Education Program For Minors.? Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse, 1994.Mothers Against Drunk Drivers. Drinking Driving and Other Drugs. Homepage. 20 June 2001. Milgram, Ga il. Coping with Alcohol. New York The Boston Publishing Group1987.NCADD. Youth, Alcohol, and Other Drugs. Homepage. 20 June 2001. ?Net Biz Mentor.? minor(ip) Drinking. Homepage. 20 June 2001. Nielson, Nancy. Teen Alcoholism. San Diego Lucent Books, Inc., 1990.O?Brien, Robert, Morris Chafetz, Sidney Cohen. Understanding Alcohol And Other Drugs. Vol. 1. New York Facts on File, Inc., 1999.